Wright M., Westhead P. and Ucbasaran D. (2007) Internationalization of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and international entrepreneurship: a critique and policy implications, Regional Studies 41, 1013–1029. Practitioners are seeking to provide a supportive environment for growing ventures. An important policy challenge is the provision of support for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) seeking to internationalize. To guide practitioner resource allocation decisions, recent conceptual and empirical developments relating to SME internationalization are discussed. An international entrepreneurship perspective is presented as a counterpoint to the established internationalization perspectives, which may have guided practitioner understanding of the aspirations and needs of SMEs. The emerging international entrepreneurship perspective relating to SME internationalization is critically reviewed with regard to the following seven themes: the timing of internationalization; the intensity and sustainability of internationalization; the mode of internationalization; the influence of the domestic environmental context on internationalization; the leveraging of external resources to internationalize; the unit of analysis (i.e. the firm or the entrepreneur); and the effect of internationalization on SME performance. Assuming an interventionist stance, a case for more balanced policy support towards SME internationalization is suggested that takes into account the diversity of SMEs (and entrepreneurs) that operate, or are capable of operating, in foreign markets. Implications for policy and researchers are presented. Wright M., Westhead P. et Ucbasaran D. (2007) L'internationalisation des Pme et l'esprit d'entreprise international: une critique et des implications pour la politique, Regional Studies 41, 1013–1029. Les praticiens cherchent à fournir un milieu qui risque de soutenir des entreprises naissantes. Un défi important pour la politique c'est de soutenir les petites et moyennes entreprises (Pme) à vocation internationale. Afin d'influencer la prise de décision quant à l'octroi des ressources par les praticiens, on discute des récents développements conceptuels et empiriques qui se rapportent à l'internationalisation des Pme. On présente un point de vue qui porte sur l'esprit d'entreprise international comme contrepoint aux idées reçues sur l'internationalisation, qui a pu influencer la compréhension des praticiens quant aux espérances et aux besoins des Pme. On fait la critique du point de vue naissant sur l'esprit d'entreprise international qui se rapporte à l'internationalisation des Pme à partir des sept questions suivantes: le moment choisi pour s'internationaliser; une internationalisation intense et durable; le mode d'internationalisation; l'influence du milieu intérieur sur l'internationalisation; comment trouver des ressources externes afin de s'internationaliser; l'unité à analyser (à savoir, l'entreprise ou l'entrepreneur); et l'impact de l'internationalisation sur la performance des Pme. En adoptant une position interventionniste, on donne des arguments en faveur d'un soutien plus équilibré à l'égard de l'internationalisation des Pme et qui tient compte de la diversité des Pme (et des entrepreneurs) qui fonctionnent, ou qui sont capables de fonctionner, sur des marchés extérieurs. On en présente les implications pour la politique et les chercheurs. Internationalisation Petites et moyennes entreprises (Pme) Implications pour la politique Wright M., Westhead P. und Ucbasaran D. (2007) Die Internationalisierung von KMU und internationales Unternehmertum: Kritik und Konsequenzen für die Politik, Regional Studies 41, 1013–1029. Zur Unterstützung expandierender Betriebe stehen spezielle Fachkräfte zur Verfügung. Hinsichtlich des politischen Umfelds gibt es bedeutsame Herausforderungen bei der Unterstützung von kleinen und mittelständischen Unternehmen (KMU), die ins Ausland expandieren möchten. Um den Fachkräften die Entscheidungen hinsichtlich der Zuweisung von Ressourcen zu erleichtern, werden die jüngsten konzeptuellen und empirischen Entwicklungen bei dieser Internationalisierung von KMU erörtert. Als Gegenpunkt zu den etablierten Perspektiven der Internationalisierung, an denen sich die Fachkräfte zum Verständnis der Ziele und Bedürfnisse der KMU eventuell orientieren, wird eine internationale Perspektive des Unternehmertums vorgestellt. Die neu entstehende internationale Perspektive des Unternehmertums wird in Bezug auf die Internationalisierung der KMU hinsichtlich der folgenden sieben Themen kritisch hinterfragt: Zeitpunkt der Internationalisierung, Intensität und Nachhaltigkeit der Internationalisierung, Art der Internationalisierung, Einfluss des einheimischen Umfeldkontextes auf die Internationalisierung, Nutzung externer Ressourcen zur Internationalisierung, Einheit der Analyse (Firma oder Unternehmer) sowie Auswirkung der Internationalisierung auf die Leistung der KMU. Im Rahmen eines interventionistischen Ansatzes wird für eine ausgeglichenere politische Unterstützung der Internationalisierung von KMU plädiert, bei der die Diversität der KMU (und Unternehmer) berücksichtigt wird, die im Ausland tätig sind bzw. sein könnten. Ebenso erörtert werden die Konsequenzen für Politik und Forschung. Internationalisierung Kleine und mittelständische Unternehmen (KMU)  Konsequenzen für Politik Wright M., Westhead P. y Ucbasaran D. (2007) La internacionalización de las pymes y el empresariado internacional: crítica e implicaciones políticas, Regional Studies 41, 1013–1029. Los interesados quieren aportar un ambiente de apoyo a las sociedades en crecimiento. Un reto importante en las políticas es la dotación de apoyo a las pequeñas y medianas empresas (pymes) que quieren internacionalizarse. Para ayudar a los interesados a tomar decisiones sobre cómo distribuir sus recursos, se discuten los avances recientes, conceptuales y empíricos para que las pymes puedan alcanzar un nivel internacional. Presentamos una perspectiva internacional de interés empresarial como un contrapunto a las ideas sobre internacionalización establecidas que posiblemente influenciaban a los interesados a la hora de entender cuáles son las aspiraciones y necesidades de las pymes. Para ellos revisamos aquí detalladamente la nueva perspectiva internacional de carácter empresarial sobre la internacionalización de las pymes con respecto a las siguientes siete cuestiones: el periodo de tiempo de la internacionalización; la intensidad y sostenibilidad de la internacionalización; el modo de internacionalización; la influencia del contexto del ambiente nacional sobre la internacionalización; la influencia de los recursos externos para la internacionalización; la unidad de análisis (es decir, la empresa o el empresario); y el efecto de la internacionalización sobre el rendimiento de las pymes. Suponiendo una postura intervencionista, abogamos por un apoyo más equilibrado de políticas hacia la internacionalización de las pymes que tenga en consideración la diversidad de las pymes (y los empresarios) que operen o sean capaces de operar en mercados extranjeros. También presentamos las implicaciones para las políticas e investigaciones. Internacionalización Pequeñas y medianas empresas (pymes) Implicaciones políticas

With this paper we explore how differing forms of entrepreneurial learning are facilitated within the context of business incubation. To support new technology venturing, university business incubators offer their tenants professional support and advice plus exposure to entrepreneurial networks with the objective of assisting them to address associated liabilities of newness. Accordingly, new venture founders are offered access to a range of resources to assist them in learning how to commercialize technological ideas. Entrepreneurial learning can be deemed explorative or exploitative; we explore how business incubation assists entrepreneurs to leverage these differing learning approaches to generate a secure resource base within the firm. From case-study evidence we suggest business incubation is effective in aligning a balance of learning approaches which support future growth prospects and add competitive advantage to young, fragile firms. We conclude by suggesting that incubator managers are critical actors in facilitating appropriate learning environments for new technology entrepreneurs.

While earlier researchers have argued that the founding team’s industry and start-up experience should positively affect new venture performance, robust empirical support for these arguments has been lacking. Moreover, theory suggests that the relationship between founding team experience and new venture performance may be more complex than previous empirical research suggests. We test specific hypotheses about the effect of founding team industry and start-up experience on the survival and sales of 223 new ventures initiated by a representative sample of Swedish new ventures, using a methodology that overcomes the limitations to previous research. Our results show that founding team experience enhances both new venture survival and sales, but that the effects are non-lin ear, and vary with venture age.

When product quality cannot be ascertained in advance of purchase, producers must convince relevant audiences that they are worthy of consideration as quality players. We propose that quality-oriented producers will selectively publicize information about their skilled employees in anticipation of signaling benefits, which include the accrual of visibility and the projection of quality-based identities. We validate our perspective on publicizing affiliation information by analyzing how a sample of Australian wine producers publicized specific career information about their skilled employees (i.e., their winemakers), including the names of certain former employers of these individuals. Copyright 2009 , Oxford University Press.

We study the labour market behaviour of employed individuals that have entrepreneurial aspirations in addition to aspirations to switch job. We analyze empirically these two “search processes” side-by-side and find that entrepreneurial aspirations and aspirations to switch job are relatively common. However, most employees are not engaged in both search processes, nor are the two processes alike: It is more difficult to empirically explain entrepreneurial aspirations than aspirations to switch job. Only few observable characteristics of the employed are related to both processes. Varied experience and job dissatisfaction are directly related to the probability of having entrepreneurial aspirations and aspirations to switch job, while job tenure is inversely related to them. Our analysis also contributes to the understanding of the process of transition from work into entrpreneurship: Employees who can experiment with new things in their present job, regard the content of their work important, and are dissatisfied with their superiors have more often entrepreneurial aspirations than others.

We examine whether the likelihood of entrepreneurial activity is related to the prior career experiences of an individual's coworkers, using a unique matched employer--employee panel data set. We argue that coworkers can increase the likelihood that an individual will perceive entrepreneurial opportunities as well as increase his or her motivation to pursue those opportunities. We find that an individual is more likely to become an entrepreneur if his or her coworkers have been entrepreneurs before. Peer influences also appear to be substitutes for other sources of entrepreneurial influence: we find that peer influences are strongest for those who have less exposure to entrepreneurship in other aspects of their lives.

We conceptualize the nascent process of becoming an entrepreneur as a role identity transformation and investigate the factors that influence an individual's decision to assume an entrepreneurial identity. We collected more than 70 hours of interview data in addition to a survey of 796 scientists at a premier research university. Our results reveal that perceived social and economic enablers, institutional support and perceived impediments play a significant role in the willingness of scientists to adopt an entrepreneurial role identity and engage in technology commercialization activity, measured by the level of invention disclosure. Interestingly, entrepreneurial intent to start a business did not have a significant main effect on the level of disclosure activity. Our findings provide a deeper understanding of the social psychological dynamics underlying nascent entrepreneurial activity as it relates to the factors enabling or impeding the adoption of role identities. This study also informs the rich dialog in the science policy and academic entrepreneurship literatures.

We argue that the current focus of the academic entrepreneurship literature, which is mostly on patent-based activities such as spinouts and licensing, should be widened to also include other informal commercial and non-commercial activities that are entrepreneurial in nature. We define as entrepreneurial any activity that occurs beyond the traditional academic roles of teaching and/or research, is innovative, carries an element of risk, and leads to financial rewards for the individual academic or his/her institution. These financial rewards can occur directly or indirectly via an increase in reputation, prestige, influence or societal benefits. Informal activities are particularly common in disciplines such as the social sciences, the creative arts and the humanities and are often overlooked by TTOs and by the academic literature. Our aim is to fill this gap by empirically analysing the determinants of academic engagement in a wider range of activities than those that are typically considered. Our findings have implications for the practice of academic entrepreneurship, and for the effectiveness of university efforts to promote entrepreneurial activities via the formal IP system and through TTOs. Our analysis is based on a recently completed survey of UK academics, providing micro-data on over 22,000 academics in the sciences, social sciences, arts and humanities. The data are complemented using institution-level information on financial and logistical support for entrepreneurial activities.

Understanding the opportunity identification process represents a core entrepreneurship domain research focus. Many studies focusing on traditional firm performance outcomes neglect the entrepreneurial human and social capital drivers that are linked to opportunity identification. Research on Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) has explored different dynamics associated with the formation of firms emanating from HEIs (e.g. from the perspective of the individual firm; by exploring support and influence offered by the parent organisation; and through analysis of the spinout process). The contribution from the individual entrepreneur in identifying an opportunity for commercialisation has not been fully explored. This study looks at how academic entrepreneurs from HEIs and non-academic entrepreneurs, from the same industrial sector, identify opportunities and accumulate resources for commercialisation during the formation of life-science firms in a geographical life-science cluster in Scotland. Entrepreneurship, studied from a human and social capital perspective, identifies how lead entrepreneurs and other team members use their individual and accumulated experiences to leverage resources. The Resource-Based View (RBV), traditionally used to examine the link between firms’ internal characteristics and competitive advantage, is extended to explore entrepreneurial behaviour during opportunity identification. Emerging themes from extant literature identify entrepreneurial team formation and the external environment as potential resource pools which aid the formation of firms. Using a process-based, case-study research approach, entrepreneurs and team members were interviewed to gather information about the identification of life-science opportunities. A lead entrepreneur’s general human capital, in the form of educational achievement, was found to be a key factor shaping the opportunity identification process. Further, a specific entrepreneurial and scientific human capital was leveraged to circumvent resource barriers. Social capital also facilitated the identification and leverage of scarce resources. Lead entrepreneurs with narrower resource profiles selected a resource munificent sponsored environment to gain access to additional resources. However, a dynamic, yet unreported in empirical research, was revealed from the data. Over time, lead academic entrepreneurs were encouraged to exit sponsored environments to enhance their independence whilst industry entrepreneurs generally sought sponsored environments for physical resources. Theory building ensued during the process of gathering data and analysing the data through comparison and iterating between existing theories.

To investigate the extent to which founders can influence their firms, I formulate a framework that considers the interaction between three main facets of founding teams’ backgrounds, namely, industry status, entrepreneurially relevant demographic features, and social capital. As the propositions and illustrations suggest, the presence of one type of capital may reduce the dependence on or need for others. The model has applicability to a variety of industries with uncertain outcomes resulting from the commercialization of early–stage technology (e.g., biotechnology, nanotechnology, software, or hardware) or subjective quality (e.g., restaurants or movies).

This study investigates the factors that shape the attitudes of scientists toward starting their own business or working in a private sector firm. The analysis is based on data collected from scientists working in the German Max Planck Society, a research institution devoted to basic science. We find that the scientists’ attractiveness of working in a private sector firm or of starting their own business differ considerably according to their academic discipline and the self-reported commercial potential of their research. The ability to take risks, prior work experience in private firms, and personal experience in cooperating with industry lead to a positive attitude towards switching to private sector employment or entrepreneurship. Strong willingness to freely distribute research findings is related to a low appeal of private sector work.

This study investigates predictors of scientists' intentions to commercialize their research through business founding. Analyzing a cross-sectional sample of 496 German scientists, we develop and test an intentions-based model of academic entrepreneurship combining personal and contextual factors. Empirical results demonstrate that intentions to start a science-based new venture are shaped by some personal characteristics (i.e., personal attitudes toward research commercialization, entrepreneurial control-beliefs, entrepreneurial self-identity, and prior entrepreneurial experience). Moreover, we find that the research context itself - i.e., normative influences of academic workplace peers - does not show a strong direct effect on entrepreneurial intentions. Moderator analyses deliver that peers have an influence primarily by person-context interactions via scientists' sense of identification with these peers. A mediation analysis further indicates that gender-related differences in entrepreneurial control-beliefs might help explain the widely-observed low proportion of female scientist-entrepreneurs.

This study explores whether habitual entrepreneurs with prior business ownership experience reported higher information search intensities and identified more business opportunities than novice entrepreneurs. Guided by human capital and cognitive theories, four hypotheses were tested with regard to a sample of 625 entrepreneurs in Great Britain. Habitual entrepreneurs were not found to report lower levels of information search intensity than novice entrepreneurs. Habitual entrepreneurs identified more business opportunities than novice entrepreneurs. Portfolio entrepreneurs identified more opportunities than serial and novice entrepreneurs. Respondents reporting higher entrepreneurial capability and information search intensity identified more opportunities. If the goals of policy are to increase the ‘quantity’ of new business start-ups and maximize investment returns, there is a case to target assistance to habitual entrepreneurs, particularly portfolio entrepreneurs. More customized assistance to entrepreneurs is required to improve the ‘quality’ of the entrepreneurial pool. Both novice and habitual entrepreneurs would benefit from schemes that promote more intensive information search and the leverage of entrepreneurial capabilities. Recherche d’information et reconnaissance des occasions L’importance de l’expérience antérieure du “Business ownership” Paul Westhead Université de Durham, R.-U. et École de commerce de cycle supérieur de Bodø, Norvège Deniz Ucbasaran Université de Nottingham, R.-U. Mike Wright Université de Nottingham, R.-U. et Université Erasmus, Pays-Bas La présente étude cherche à savoir si les entrepreneurs usuels, possédant une expérience antérieure du “business ownership”, ont fait preuve d’une intensité de recherche d’information plus forte et s’ils ont identifié davantage de débouchés que les entrepreneurs plus novices. S’appuyant sur le capital humain et sur des théories cognitives, nous avons mis à l’épreuve quatre hypothèses sur la base d’un échantillon de 625 entrepreneurs implantés en Grande-Bretagne. On a constaté que les entrepreneurs usuels n’ont pas fait preuve de niveaux de recherche d’information inférieurs à ceux des entrepreneurs novices mais que, par contre, ils ont identifié davantage de débouchés commerciaux que les entrepreneurs novices. Les entrepreneurs de portefeuille, quant à eux, ont identifié plus de débouchés commerciaux que les entrepreneurs en série ‘(“serial entrepreneur”) et les entrepreneurs novices. Les personnes interrogées, qui ont fait preuve d’une aptitude entrepreneuriale plus pointue et d’une recherche d’information plus intense, ont identifié un nombre plus élevé de débouchés. Si les objectifs que se propose d’atteindre cette politique sont d’augmenter le “volume” des démarrages d’entreprise et de maximiser le rendement des investissements, cibler l’aide en faveur des entrepreneurs usuels — en particulier en faveur des entrepreneurs de portefeuille — est justifiable. Il est essentiel d’apporter une aide personnalisée plus importante aux entrepreneurs si l’on veut améliorer la ‘qualité” du pool entrepreneurial. En fait, autant les entrepreneurs usuels que les entrepreneurs novices pourraient bénéficier de programmes qui encouragent une recherche d’information plus intensive et l’exploitation des capacités entrepreneuriales. Búsqueda de información e identificación de oportunidades La importancia de la experiencia previa de los empresarios propietarios Paul Westhead Universidad de Durham, RU y Escuela de Negocios para Estudios de Postgrado de Bode, Noruega Deniz Ucbasaran Universidad de Nottingham, RU Mike Wright Universidad de Nottingham, RU y Universidad Erasmus, Países Bajos Este estudio explora la posibilidad de que los emprendedores habituales con experiencia previa revelan más intensidad en la búsqueda de información y mayor identificación de oportunidades comerciales que los emprendedores novicios. Guiados por el capital humano y las teorías cognitivas, probamos cuatro hipótesis respecto a una muestra de 625 emprendedores en Gran Bretaña. Los emprendedores habituales no acusaron niveles más bajos de búsqueda de información que los emprendedores novicios. Los emprendedores habituales identificaron más oportunidades comerciales que los emprendedores novicios. Los emprendedores de cartera identificaron más oportunidades que los emprendedores sistemáticos y novicios. Los encuestados que demostraron más capacidad empresarial y una búsqueda de información más intensa identificaron más oportunidades. Si las metas de la política son aumentar la ‘cantidad’ de empresas incipientes y maximizar los ingresos derivados de inversiones, existen razones para concentrar la ayuda en los emprendedores habituales, sobre todo en los emprendedores de cartera. Es necesario que se preste más ayuda personalizada a los emprendedores para mejorar la calidad del fondo común empresarial. Tanto los emprendedores habituales como los novicios sacarían provecho de los programas que fomentan una búsqueda de información más intensiva y el apalancamiento de la capacidad empresarial. Informationssuche und die Erkennung von Geschäftsmöglichkeiten Wichtige Erfahrungen aus ehemaligem Unternehmensbesitz Paul Westhead Durham Universität, Großbritannien und Bodø Graduate School of Business, Norwegen Deniz Ucbasaran Nottingham Universität, Großbritannien Mike Wright Nottingham Universität, Großbritannien and Erasmus Universität, Niederlande Diese Studie untersucht, ob habituelle Unternehmer mit Erfahrungen aus ehemaligem Unternehmensbesitz mehr Informationssuche betreiben und mehr Gelegenheiten identifizieren als Neuunternehmer. Basierend auf Humankapital und kognitiven Theorien wurden vier Hypothesen unter Zuhilfenahme einer Stichprobe von 625 Unternehmern in Großbritannien geprüft. Habituelle Unternehmer haben der Studie nach nicht weniger Informationssuche betrieben als Neuunternehmer. Habituelle Unternehmer identifizierten jedoch mehr Geschäftsmöglichkeiten als Neuunternehmer. Portfoliounternehmer identifizierten mehr Geschäftsmöglichkeiten als serielle und Neuunternehmer. Die Befragten, die über höhere unternehmerische Fähigkeiten und Informationssuche berichteten, identifizierten auch mehr Geschäftsmöglichkeiten. Wenn die Ziele der Politik darin bestehen, die „Menge“ neuer Unternehmensgründungen und höhere Investitionserträge zu fördern, dann sollte man habituelle Unternehmer, insbesondere Portfoliounternehmer fördern. Weitere spezielle Förderung von Unternehmern ist nötig, um die „Qualität“ des Unternehmerpools zu verbessern. Neuunternehmer sowie habituelle Unternehmer würden von Maßnahmen profitieren, die eine intensivere Informationssuche und die Hebelwirkung von unternehmerischen Fähigkeiten fördern würde.

This study examined the influence of genetic factors on the tendency to engage in entrepreneurship. We found that, in the particular sample we examined, between 37 and 42 percent of the variance in the tendency of people to engage in entrepreneurship is accounted for by genetic factors. A substantial part of this variance was mediated by the psychological trait of sensation seeking, suggesting that genes affect the tendency of people to engage in entrepreneurship by affecting the distribution of sensation seeking across people.

This study addresses the impact of the principal founder’s general and specific human capital factors on the extent of the internationalisation of early internationalising firms originating from a relatively low-tech and labour-intensive industry in a least-developed country. We engage in quantitative analysis using data drawn from the Bangladeshi apparel industry. Our results reveal direct and indirect effects of specific human capital factors on the extent of a firm’s early internationalisation. However, contrary to the extant findings for developed and advanced-emerging economies, general human capital factors, namely the founder’s higher educational qualifications and international experience, are not found to be significant determinants of early internationalisation. Although human capital theory is used as a key theoretical framework, our study also draws on several other schools of thought, including the resource-based view, social networking theory and the learning perspective. The findings of our study provide evidence of the synergistic effects originating from the founder’s specific human capital factors. In particular, we find that resources, learning and social network ties derived from specific human capital factors influence the extent of a firm’s early internationalisation. Our findings are also consistent with the revisited Uppsala model in so far as they relate to the importance of knowledge and relationships prior to the establishment of focal firms. The implications of our findings for national and enterprise development policies are also considered.

This paper seeks to explain an unexpected result of a previous quantitative study which suggested suboptimal evaluation by investors of the human capital of first time high tech venture founders. A literature review revealed two possible reasons for this finding: biases/heuristics and signalling. Six investors across three countries (one venture capitalist and one business angel each from the US, UK and Israel) with experience in investing in early stage high technology ventures were interviewed using an identical semi-structured interview protocol. This research design is appropriate for research that seeks to reflect back unexpected findings of previous quantitative research on the subjects of research. Interviewees were first asked to state their own investment criteria, and then presented with the results of the quantitative study and asked for their views. Previous research suggesting a gap between in-use and espoused criteria, and extensive use of gut feeling in decision-making, was supported. Interviewees focused on harvest potential and de-emphasised measures of founder technology capability that predicted early survival and growth in the earlier study. The paper concludes by suggesting how investors might improve funding decisions in high tech ventures led by first time entrepreneurs, noting the study's limitations and making recommendations for further research.

This paper provides an initial analysis of major patterns and trends in entrepreneurship among technology-based university alumni since the 1930s. We describe findings from two linked datasets joining MIT alumni with MIT founder information. The rate of forming new companies by MIT alumni has grown dramatically over seven decades. Women alumni have in more recent decades become entrepreneurs at a faster growth rate than men, but still constitute only 10% of new entrepreneurs. Alumni who are not U.S. citizens also are entering entrepreneurship at a faster pace than their American classmates, but still constitute only 15% of current entrants. The median age of first time entrepreneurs has gradually declined from about age 40 to about age 30. Our results also suggest that rather than examining stable individual traits, future research in this domain may wish to examine business and strategic environment factors.

This paper presents the results and policy implications of a study that examined the spawning of founders who had previously been employed at large corporations. We found that spawning of founders is positively associated with the parent companies' productivity, innovativeness, and headquarter location. Furthermore, we found that the spin-off per employee rate is higher in smaller establishments. We also found that the local entrepreneurial culture is significant in explaining local spawning of founders. Finally, we present new empirical evidence on the crucial role of successful homegrown companies in regional cluster development. More specifically, we found that the existence of successful homegrown companies is significantly correlated with the level of the regional entrepreneurial activity. This finding is consistent with the finding of many cluster development case studies. Thus, we argue that successful homegrown companies have a unique role in cluster development. This role can seldom be replaced by nonhomegrown companies. This is related to the notion that prior to the development of an entrepreneurial cluster, some intangible precondition should be realized such as the appearance of local role models and a shift toward a more entrepreneurial culture. In a more general perspective, these results support the notion that knowledge-based regional development is a complex process that requires a long-term and continuously adjusting supporting policy rather than being based mainly on attracting established companies' R&D centers to the region. Copyright 2010 by The Policy Studies Organization.

This paper investigates the effect of founders' professional-education background on the adoption of an open-science technology strategy, using a sample of 512 young biotechnology firms. After controlling for founders' prior work experience and other organizational and environmental factors, I find that firms with proportionally more Ph.D.-holding entrepreneurs on the founding team have a higher probability of adopting open science. In addition, founders' educational background can mitigate the constraint of organizational environments on strategy. A crowded technological niche provides a more challenging environment for firms to implement open science, due to higher scooping risks. The deterrent effect, however, of such a high-risk environment is smaller among firms founded by proportionally more Ph.D.-holding entrepreneurs. There is also some evidence of a stronger effect of founders' educational background on open science in an institutional environment in which open science has yet to become the industry norm. This finding is consistent with and complements the growing body of research that emphasizes the importance of entrepreneurial background in developing knowledge about new-venture strategy and structure. This paper was accepted by Olav Sorenson, organizations.

This paper explores the possible relationship between sources of knowledge acquisition and entrepreneurs’ innovativeness from the perspective of knowledge management. Specifically, it employs the partial least squares structure equation model to study the entrepreneurs’ innovativeness through knowledge acquisition. It has been found that knowledge acquisition through social networks with suppliers, manufacturers and distributors and management practices has a positive effect on entrepreneurial alertness to business ideas. Moreover, entrepreneurial alertness plays a mediating role between sources of knowledge acquisition and entrepreneurs’ innovativeness. In addition, entrepreneurial alertness plays a completely mediating role between core social network knowledge and entrepreneurs’ innovativeness, and a partial mediating role between sources of knowledge acquisition and entrepreneurs’ innovativeness. This finding has both theoretical and practical implications for entrepreneurial learning in general.