Cognitive science.

There are many reasons why a budding academic might want to avoid interdisciplinary research. It is diffi cult enough to acquire expertise in one fi eld of research, let alone two or more. The time required to read the literature in a fi eld outside your own main area can be hard to fi nd, and the additional time investment to learn novel methods from another fi eld can be huge. Moreover, the hiring and reward systems in academia still run strongly along disciplinary lines, so that work that draws on or contributes to other fi elds may not be fully valued in one’s own fi eld. Interdisciplinary research may not be appreciated by narrow-minded colleagues. Some interdisciplinary projects have a bogus air about them, looking like they were designed more to bring in big research grants than to accomplish intellectual goals. The interdisciplinary scholar can look a bit like a dilettante, dabbling in multiple fi elds in order to avoid tackling the diffi cult problems in an established fi eld. Grants for interdisciplinary research can be diffi cult to get, because most granting agencies are organized along disciplinary lines. Despite these deterrents to interdisciplinary research, there are powerful intellectual reasons why work that oversteps the ossifi ed boundaries of established fi elds can have great intellectual benefi ts. Such benefi ts are vividly apparent in the interdisciplinary fi eld of cognitive science, which attempts to understand the mind by combining insights from the fi elds of psychology, philosophy, linguistics, neuroscience, anthropology, and artifi cial intelligence. After a brief review of the history of the fi eld and its contributing disciplines, this chapter will examine some of the main theoretical and experimental advances that cognitive science has accomplished over the past half century, deriving lessons that might be useful for researchers in any emerging interdisciplinary area.

[1]  D. Spalding The Principles of Psychology , 1873, Nature.

[2]  C. Wernicke Der aphasische Symptomencomplex: Eine psychologische Studie auf anatomischer Basis , 1874 .

[3]  Gottlob Frege,et al.  Begriffsschrift, eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache des reinen Denkens , 1879 .

[4]  R. H.,et al.  The Principles of Mathematics , 1903, Nature.

[5]  G. B. M. Principia Mathematica , 1911, Nature.

[6]  B. Russell,et al.  Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy , 1920, The Mathematical Gazette.

[7]  R. J. B. The Child's Conception of the World , 1929, Nature.

[8]  L. Kubie A THEORETICAL APPLICATION TO SOME NEUROLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF THE PROPERTIES OF EXCITATION WAVES WHICH MOVE IN CLOSED CIRCUITS , 1930 .

[9]  F. Bartlett,et al.  Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology , 1932 .

[10]  F. W. Irwin Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men , 1932, The Psychological Clinic.

[11]  Alfred Tarski,et al.  Der Wahrheitsbegriff in den formalisierten Sprachen , 1935 .

[12]  S. Kleene General recursive functions of natural numbers , 1936 .

[13]  A. Turing On computable numbers, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem , 1937, Proc. London Math. Soc..

[14]  Claude E. Shannon,et al.  A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits , 1938, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

[15]  N. Wiener,et al.  Behavior, Purpose and Teleology , 1943, Philosophy of Science.

[16]  J. Neumann,et al.  Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. , 1945 .

[17]  E. Tolman Cognitive maps in rats and men. , 1948, Psychological review.

[18]  E. Tolman There is more than one kind of learning. , 1949, Psychological review.

[19]  W. Penfield,et al.  Vocalization and arrest of speech. , 1949, Archives of neurology and psychiatry.

[20]  F. H. Adler Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. , 1949 .

[21]  G. Moruzzi,et al.  Brain stem reticular formation and activation of the EEG. , 1949, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[22]  K. Lashley The problem of serial order in behavior , 1951 .

[23]  J. Knott The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory , 1951 .

[24]  J. Stamm Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior, The Hixon Symposium , 1952 .

[25]  Zellig S. Harris,et al.  Methods in structural linguistics. , 1952 .

[26]  A. Ross Structural Linguistics , 1953, Nature.

[27]  Brain mechanisms and consciousness : a symposium organized by the council for international organizations of medical sciences , 1954 .

[28]  James L Olds,et al.  Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain. , 1954, Journal of comparative and physiological psychology.

[29]  J. Piaget The construction of reality in the child , 1954 .

[30]  G. A. Miller The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. , 1956, Psychological review.

[31]  J HOCHBERG,et al.  Perception: toward the recovery of a definition. , 1956, Psychological review.

[32]  John H. Holland,et al.  Tests on a cell assembly theory of the action of the brain, using a large digital computer , 1956, IRE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[33]  W. V. Quine Quantifiers and Propositional Attitudes , 1956 .

[34]  Z. Harris Co-Occurrence and Transformation in Linguistic Structure , 1957 .

[35]  William M. Smith,et al.  A Study of Thinking , 1956 .

[36]  W. Scoville,et al.  LOSS OF RECENT MEMORY AFTER BILATERAL HIPPOCAMPAL LESIONS , 1957, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[37]  V. Mountcastle Modality and topographic properties of single neurons of cat's somatic sensory cortex. , 1957, Journal of neurophysiology.

[38]  Allen Newell,et al.  Elements of a theory of human problem solving. , 1958 .

[39]  F ROSENBLATT,et al.  The perceptron: a probabilistic model for information storage and organization in the brain. , 1958, Psychological review.

[40]  J. Deutsch Perception and Communication , 1958, Nature.

[41]  R. Brown How shall a thing be called. , 1958, Psychological review.

[42]  Noam Chomsky,et al.  A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior , 1980 .

[43]  D. Hubel,et al.  Receptive fields of single neurones in the cat's striate cortex , 1959, The Journal of physiology.

[44]  W. Pitts,et al.  What the Frog's Eye Tells the Frog's Brain , 1959, Proceedings of the IRE.

[45]  Arthur L. Samuel,et al.  Some Studies in Machine Learning Using the Game of Checkers , 1967, IBM J. Res. Dev..

[46]  George Sperling,et al.  The information available in brief visual presentations. , 1960 .

[47]  Frank A. Beach,et al.  The neuropsychology of Lashley : selected papers of K.S. Lashley , 1961 .

[48]  Norbert Wiener,et al.  Cybernetics, or control and communication in the animal and the machine, 2nd ed. , 1961 .

[49]  Marvin Minsky,et al.  Steps toward Artificial Intelligence , 1995, Proceedings of the IRE.

[50]  D. Hubel,et al.  Receptive fields, binocular interaction and functional architecture in the cat's visual cortex , 1962, The Journal of physiology.

[51]  R. Shepard The analysis of proximities: Multidimensional scaling with an unknown distance function. I. , 1962 .

[52]  G. A. Miller,et al.  Finitary models of language users , 1963 .

[53]  Frank Rosenblatt,et al.  PRINCIPLES OF NEURODYNAMICS. PERCEPTRONS AND THE THEORY OF BRAIN MECHANISMS , 1963 .

[54]  Approaches to the study of aphasia : a report of an interdisciplinary conference on aphasia , 1963 .

[55]  Mc Culloch,et al.  What's in the Brain that Ink May Character? , 1964 .

[56]  W. Ritchie Russell Disorders of Language , 1964 .

[57]  Noam Chomsky,et al.  वाक्यविन्यास का सैद्धान्तिक पक्ष = Aspects of the theory of syntax , 1965 .

[58]  W. McCulloch,et al.  Embodiments of Mind , 1966 .

[59]  H A Simon,et al.  An example of human chess play in the light of chess playing programs. , 1965, Progress in biocybernetics.

[60]  Martin Davis,et al.  The Undecidable: Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems and Computable Functions , 2004 .

[61]  E. Mark Gold,et al.  Language Identification in the Limit , 1967, Inf. Control..

[62]  L. Kamin Predictability, surprise, attention, and conditioning , 1967 .

[63]  S. Brush History of the Lenz-Ising Model , 1967 .

[64]  George A. Miller,et al.  Introduction to the Formal Analysis of Natural Languages , 1968 .

[65]  R W Sperry,et al.  Hemisphere deconnection and unity in conscious awareness. , 1968, The American psychologist.

[66]  A. Battersby Plans and the Structure of Behavior , 1968 .

[67]  D. C. Cooper,et al.  Theory of Recursive Functions and Effective Computability , 1969 .

[68]  R. Gardner,et al.  Teaching sign language to a chimpanzee. , 1969, Science.

[69]  Saul Sternberg,et al.  The discovery of processing stages: Extensions of Donders' method , 1969 .

[70]  M. Gazzaniga The Bisected Brain , 1970 .

[71]  Michael I. Posner,et al.  Abstraction and The Process of Recognition , 1970 .

[72]  Walter Reitman,et al.  14 – What Does It Take to Remember? , 1970 .

[73]  G. F. Cooper,et al.  Development of the Brain depends on the Visual Environment , 1970, Nature.

[74]  R. Atkinson,et al.  The control of short-term memory. , 1971, Scientific American.

[75]  R. Shepard,et al.  Mental Rotation of Three-Dimensional Objects , 1971, Science.

[76]  J. O'Keefe,et al.  The hippocampus as a spatial map. Preliminary evidence from unit activity in the freely-moving rat. , 1971, Brain research.

[77]  P. Solomon,et al.  Sensory deprivation. , 1971, The American journal of psychiatry.

[78]  A. Tversky,et al.  Subjective Probability: A Judgment of Representativeness , 1972 .

[79]  D. B. Bender,et al.  Visual properties of neurons in inferotemporal cortex of the Macaque. , 1972, Journal of neurophysiology.

[80]  R. Rescorla,et al.  A theory of Pavlovian conditioning : Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement , 1972 .

[81]  Terry Winograd,et al.  Understanding natural language , 1974 .

[82]  Allen Newell,et al.  Human Problem Solving. , 1973 .

[83]  G. Johansson Visual perception of biological motion and a model for its analysis , 1973 .

[84]  A. Tversky,et al.  On the psychology of prediction , 1973 .

[85]  R. Brown,et al.  A First Language , 1973 .

[86]  T. Bliss,et al.  Long‐lasting potentiation of synaptic transmission in the dentate area of the anaesthetized rabbit following stimulation of the perforant path , 1973, The Journal of physiology.

[87]  Endel Tulving,et al.  Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. , 1973 .

[88]  R. Nisbett,et al.  Culture and Cognition , 2002 .

[89]  Marvin Minsky,et al.  A framework for representing knowledge , 1974 .

[90]  D. Gaffan,et al.  Recognition impaired and association intact in the memory of monkeys after transection of the fornix. , 1974, Journal of comparative and physiological psychology.

[91]  A. Tversky,et al.  Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases , 1974, Science.

[92]  R. Hirsh The hippocampus and contextual retrieval of information from memory: a theory. , 1974, Behavioral biology.

[93]  Noam Chomsky,et al.  The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory , 1975 .

[94]  D. Bobrow,et al.  Representation and Understanding: Studies in Cognitive Science , 1975 .

[95]  N. Mackintosh A Theory of Attention: Variations in the Associability of Stimuli with Reinforcement , 1975 .

[96]  E. Rosch,et al.  Family resemblances: Studies in the internal structure of categories , 1975, Cognitive Psychology.

[97]  Marvin Minsky,et al.  A framework for representing knowledge" in the psychology of computer vision , 1975 .

[98]  K. Pribram,et al.  Freud's "Project" re-assessed : preface to contemporary cognitive theory and neuropsychology , 1976 .

[99]  J. Fodor,et al.  The Psychology of Language: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics and Generative Grammar , 1976 .

[100]  A. Tversky Features of Similarity , 1977 .

[101]  Eleanor Rosch,et al.  Principles of Categorization , 1978 .

[102]  M. Posner Chronometric explorations of mind , 1978 .

[103]  G. Nunberg The pragmatics of reference , 1978 .

[104]  Amos Tversky,et al.  Studies of similarity , 1978 .

[105]  S. Zeki Functional specialisation in the visual cortex of the rhesus monkey , 1978, Nature.

[106]  G. Edelman,et al.  The Mindful Brain: Cortical Organization and the Group-Selective Theory of Higher Brain Function , 1978 .

[107]  S. Pinker Formal models of language learning , 1979, Cognition.

[108]  H. Terrace,et al.  Can an ape create a sentence? , 1979, Science.

[109]  Mark S. Seidenberg,et al.  Signing behavior in apes: A critical review , 1979, Cognition.

[110]  E. Klima The signs of language , 1979 .

[111]  R. Passingham The hippocampus as a cognitive map J. O'Keefe & L. Nadel, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1978). 570 pp., £25.00 , 1979, Neuroscience.

[112]  A. M. Turing,et al.  Computing Machinery and Intelligence , 1950, The Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence.

[113]  L. Squire,et al.  Preserved learning and retention of pattern-analyzing skill in amnesia: dissociation of knowing how and knowing that. , 1980, Science.

[114]  Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini,et al.  Language and Learning: The Debate Between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky , 1980 .

[115]  N. Block Readings in philosophy of psychology , 1980 .

[116]  Sandy Lovie How the mind works , 1980, Nature.

[117]  Kenneth Wexler,et al.  Formal Principles of Language Acquisition , 1980 .

[118]  E. Kandel Cellular Insights into the Multivariant Nature of Arousal , 1980 .

[119]  R. Gillman Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend , 1980 .

[120]  Eric Wanner,et al.  Language acquisition: the state of the art , 1982 .

[121]  S. Kosslyn Image and mind , 1982 .

[122]  Dorothy Irene Marquart,et al.  The Language Lottery: Toward a Biology of Grammars , 1982 .

[123]  J J Hopfield,et al.  Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities. , 1982, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[124]  J. Mandler Recent Research on Story Grammars , 1982 .

[125]  G M Edelman,et al.  Selective networks capable of representative transformations, limited generalizations, and associative memory. , 1982, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[126]  G. Lakoff,et al.  Metaphors We Live by , 1982 .

[127]  R. Weale Vision. A Computational Investigation Into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information. David Marr , 1983 .

[128]  R. Langacker Foundations of cognitive grammar , 1983 .

[129]  J. Fodor Modularity of mind , 1983 .

[130]  Dedre Gentner,et al.  Structure-Mapping: A Theoretical Framework for Analogy , 1983, Cogn. Sci..

[131]  Robert C. Richardson,et al.  Perception and Cognition: Issues in the Foundations of Psychology , 1978 .