Modules and Retroactivity : Theoretical Framework , Analysis , and Design

In their influential paper [1], Hartwell et. al. argued for the recognition of functional “modules” as a critical level of biological organization, contending that modularity is a key feature that makes biology close to synthetic disciplines such as computer science and engineering. Lauffenberger [2] further elaborates that biology could be understood in a hierarchical or nested manner, analogous to engineering design, where components are studied first in isolation, tested and individually characterized, prior to their incorporation into larger systems.